GRAMMAR EQUIVALENCE

            Grammar is the set of rules which determine the way in which units such as words and prahses can be combined in a language in the kind of information  which has to be made regularly explicit in utterancis. A language can, of course express any kind of information its speakers need to rxpress, but the grammatical system of a given language will determine the ease with which certain notions such as time reverence or gender can be made explicit.

a.      A.  Grammatical vs Lexical Categories

            The grammatical pattren of a language (as opposed to its lexical stock) determine those aspets of each experience that must be expressed in the given language. Grammar is the organized along two main dimensions: morphologi and syntax, morphology covers the structure of words, the way in wich the form of a word changes  to indicate specific contrash in the grammatical system “for instance , specific contrasts in the forms, a singular from and a plural from: man/men, child/chidren, car/cars, english can therefore be said to have grammatical category of number.

            The most  important difference betwen grammatical and lexical choices, as far as translation is concerned, is that grammatical choices are largely obligatory while lexical choice are largely optional. Because a grammatical choice is drawn from a closed set of option:

·         Obligatory

·         Rules out other choicesfrom the same system by default

The fact that number is a grammatical category in english means that an english speakers of writer who uses a noun such as student or child has to choose between singular and plural. The committe is/are considering the questions, the choice of singular in english rules out the possibility of plural reference by default, and vice versa.

E.g :

a. Lecixal categories

Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, Adverbs (etc.)- the building blocks of sentences

(1) The [N sun] shines too brightly in Tucson

(2) *[V Will glow] shines too brightly in Tucson

·         Classic definitions of parts of speech:

Noun: Person, place, or thing

Verb: Action, occurrence or state of being

Adjective: modifier that expresses quality, quantity or extent.

Adverb: modifier that expresses manner, quality, place, time, degree and etc

Preposition: modifier that indicates location or origin.

b.      Grammatical Categories

A grammatical word (a.k.a. ) is a word that in itself has either (1) little or no actual meaning (lexical meaning) or (2) ambiguous or uncertain meaning, but functions to indicate grammatical relationships with other words in a sentence. The usual grammatical words are.

e.g :

·         Auxiliaries (am, are, be, do, got, is, have, etc)

·         Conjunctions (and, although, or, that, when, while, etc)

·         Determiners (a, either, more, much, neither, my, that, the, etc)

·         Particles (as, no, nor, not, etc)

·         Prepositions (at, between, in, of, without, etc)

·         Pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, anybody, one, etc)

In other words, lexical words are the ordinary words to denote things whereas grammatical words are the words that operate the grammar. There is clearly some degree of overlap between the two.

B.     The Diversity Of Grammatical Categories Across Languages

Languages are differently equipped to express different reald world relations, and they certainly do not express all aspects of meaning with equal ease.it is difficult to find a national category which is regulary an unyformaly expressed in a languages.defferencis in the grammativcal stuctures of the source and targer languages  often result in some change in the information content of the message during the prosses of translation.the change in the information content of the message may bye in the source text. If the target language lacks  a grammatical category which exics in the source language.

1.      Number

The idea of contablity is probably universal in the sense that it is readily accissible to all human beings and is expressed in the lexical structure of all languages.as explanned above ,english recognizes a distinction between one more than one( singular and plural). A translator  working from a language which has number has two main options : s/he can

·         Omit the relevan information on number

·         Encode this information lexiccaly

The following examples illustrate how informations on number is often left out in languages such as chinese and jappanese.It may sometimes be necessary or desirable in certain contexs to specify such information because they do not have a category of number or a dual from.in this case the translator may decide to encode the relevan  information lexically  as in the following examples.

e.g :

2.      GENDER

Gender is a grammatical distenition according to which a noun or pronoun is classified as ether masculine or feminine in some language.the distictions applies to nouns which refer to animate being as well as those which refer to ininamate object.

e.g : french distinguishes between masculin and feminine gender in nouns such as fill/fille(son/dsughter) and chall/challe.english does not have a grammatival category of gender as such: english nouns are not regularly influented to distinguish between feminine and masqulin.in some languages such as arabic ,gender distintions in their.

Gender distinction are generally more relevant in translation when the referent of the noun or pronoun is human . The following text illustrates the kind of problem that the promoniminal function of gender can pose in translation. Although gender is also a grammatical category in french , gender distinction are only expressed on nouns,articles,and adjective, and in third –person  pronouns : they do not affect the prom  of the verb.

3.      PERSON

The category of person relates to the nation of participant roles.in most languages,participant rules are sistematically defined thorought a closed system of pronouns which may be organized along a variety  of dimentions. The most common distictions is that between firs person (identfying the speakers  or a groub  which includes  the speakers :english //we )secont  person(identfying persons and thinks ather than the speakers and addressee: English helshelitlthey).in addition to the main distinctions based onparticipant roles the person system may be organized along a variety of other dimensions.

e.g : “Category of Person “

The category of person relates to the notion of participant roles. English as the source language three types of pronouns with person reference; namely, the personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and possessive pronouns. These pronouns havedistinctions ofperson: the first person referring to the speaker(I or We); the second person referring to the person(s) addressed (you); and the third person referring to one or more other persons or things (he/she/it/they). The personal, pronouns have two sets of case-forms: the subjective and the objective-forms. Whereas the reflexive pronouns replace a co-referential noun phrase, normally within the same finite clause and the possessive ones combine genitive functions with pronominal functions. The following Table 1illustrates these three types of English pronounsstated by Quirk and Green Baum(1973:102).

Table 1 English Pronoun

	PERSONAL PRONOUNS		Reflexive Pronouns	Possesive Pronouns
	SUBJ. Case	Obj. case		Determiner Function	Nominal Function

            Bahasa Indonesia, however, only has one type of pronoun with person reference, which is the personal pronoun. This kind of pronoun also has distinctions of the First person (the speaker), the second person (the person spoken to), and the third person (the person being spoken of (Moeliono, 1988:172). In Bahasa Indonesia, there is not only a distinction of singular and plural forms but also a distinction of exclusive and inclusive forms (especially in the first person plural form). The division of  this division can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2. Personal Pronoun of Bahasa Indonesia (Moeliono 1998,:172)

4.      TENSE AND ASPECT

            The word tense stands for a verb form or seriesof verb forms usedto expressa time relation. Tenses may indicate whether an action,  activity,  or state is past, present, or future.  Hornby (1975:78-79) notes that English verbs have not only two simple tenses which are called the Simple Present and Simple Past but also many compound tenses which are made by combining two or more verb forms. These combinations may be concerned with time, especially those with parts of the verbs "be" and "have". There are actually 12 tenses in his lists: 1) Simple Present Tense, 2) Present Progressive Tense,  3) Simple Past Tense, 4) Past progressive Tense,  5)Future Tense Non-Progressive,  6) Future Progressive Tense,  7) Present  Perfect Tense Non-Progressive,  8) Present  Perfect Progressive  Tense,  9) Past  Perfect Tense, 10) Past Perfect progressive Tense, 11) Future Perfect Tense Non-Progressive, and 12)Future Perfect Progressive Tense.

            What make the English tenses complicated is the fact that the term present, past and future within these tenses do not actually refer to the present time, past time and future time. In Bahasa Indonesia, on the other hand, there are no changes of verb forms in representing the tense category. Bahasa Indonesia does not indicate the category of tense morphologically but rather lexically by adding a particular word  that indicates the tense. Words  which are usually used to express tense in Bahasa Indonesia are 'sudah or telah' (to expressthe idea of past tenses)

5.      VOICE

Frank (l972:55) states that voice in English grammar refers to the active and passive use of a verb. He also notes that the English people use the active voice more often than the passive voice since they prefer to make a direct statement of an action. The passive voice is used when the greater emphasis is to be placed on the 'event' than on the 'actor', or when the 'doer' of an action is unimportant or is unknown.  In Bahasa Indonesia,  however,  there are fourtypes of passive sentences a quoted by Dardjowidojo, in Purwo (1986:59). Thoseare: 1)the passive sentences which express intentional acts (commonly marked by the use of prefix di-), 2) the passive sentences which express unintentional acts (commonly marked  by the use ofprefix ter-),  3)  the adversative passive sentences (that commonly marked by use of affix ke-an and in the sentence), and4) the passive sentences formed by the use of ke-an meaning dapat di+verb.

  e.g :

Active: a) nigel mansel opened the mensell hall in 1986

Passive:b) the mansell hall was opened in 1986

 c) the mansell hall was opened  by nigel

C.    A Brief Note On Word Order

The sintatict structur of a languages imposes  restrictions on the way messages may be organized  in that language .the order in which functional elements such as object ,predicators, and object may occur  is more fixed in some languages thai in other.

D.INTRODUCING TEXT

In order to make some headway in descrybing  and analysing  language  we have had temporarly to treat  linguistic unit  and structures  as if they  had an  independent  status and  possesed  meaning  in their  own right.  A good translator does not begin to translate until she/he read the text at least once and got a ‘gist’ of the overall message.

1.      Text Vs Non-Text

            As translator  we have to operate with lexical items and grammatical structures at various stages  of the translations proces. it this never theless imperative that we view  the text as  a whole both  at the beginning  and at the  end of the procces.

2.      Features Of Text Organization

            Any text in any language exhibits certain linguistic features which  allow us to identyfy  a streth  of language  as a text partly  it as a text  because it is  presented to us  as a text . and we there fore  do our utmost  to make sense  of it as a text. Organizational features are ways for an author to break up a text so information is easier to find and read. One of the most common organizational features found in an informational text is the heading.  Headings appear at the top of major sections and give the reader an idea of what to expect. The section you're currently reading has the heading 'Organizational Features'...as you can see the heading tells you exactly what the information in the section is about Underneath headings,  you may also find subheadings that give you clues about parts of the larger section. Both headings and subheadings are usually indicated by a different style or font than the rest of the text. These differences may be from a different font size or if the text is bold, underlined, or italicized. Bold, underlined, or italicized fonts may also be used to highlight key words, phrases, or quotes for the reader.

·         Text Structures

In addition to organizational features, authors can also organize the information using different text structures. Informational texts usually use one of five different text structures:

§  compare-contrast

§  sequential

§  cause-effect

§  descriptive

§  problem-solution

CONCLUSSION

The results of the analysis on the three grammatical categories are

Concluded as follows.

1.      Most English personal pronouns with person reference are translated or encoded by the personal pronouns in Bahasa Indonesia, when these pronouns are used to refer to persons. Pronouns are not translated at all whenever their meanings are considered known from the context. English pronouns with person reference are translated into Bahasa Indonesia by using the repetition of the nouns when they are used to refer to non-personal reference.

2.      The idea of tense in Bahasa Indonesia is not expressed morphologically but lexically by adding particular words that denote the time references of the verbs. The words denoting time references which are commonly used are, sudah, telah for past time, sedang for present time, and akan for future time. The use of these words do not always fit the ideas of past tenses, present tenses, and future tenses. These words are mainly applicable dealing with the real present, past or future tenses.          

3.      Both English and Bahasa Indonesia have the category of voice. The English active and passive forms, however, do not always have the same forms in Bahasa Indonesia. The English active sentences are not always translated into active sentences in BahasaIndonesia, and vice versa.